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REVIEW OF MASS DEFECT
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) September 27. 2015 In atomic and nuclear physics the mass defect of an atom or an atomic nucleus is usually less than the sum of the individual masses of the constituent nuclei and electrons in atoms or the constituent protons and neutrons in nuclei. This 'missing mass' is known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the atom or the nucleus was formed. After my discovery of the Matter Matter Interaction and according to the two conservation laws of energy and mass the binding energy ΔΕ in the correct Bohr model turns into the energy hν of the generated photon, while the mass defect ΔΜ = ΔΕ/c2 turns to the photon mass m = hν/c2 . For example in the hydrogen atom the experiments of the hydrogen ionization showed that the electric binding energy ΔΕ =13.6 eV turns to the photon energy hν = 13.6 eV, while the mass defect ΔΜ = 13.6 eV/c2 turns to the photon mass m = hν/c2 = 13.6 eV/c2. Although Bohr in his model of hydrogen showed that the binding energy ΔΕ = 13.6 eV turns to the photon energy hν, Einstein under his invalid mass-energy conservation in his invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) believed incorrectly that in the charge-charge interaction of the electron - positron system the masses of the particles are converted into the radiant energy. Einstein himself pointed out: “ Pre-relativity physics contains two conservation laws of fundamental importance, namely, the law of conservation of energy and the law of conservation of mass; these two appear there as completely independent of each other. Through relativity theory they melt together into one principle.” In fact, after my discovery of the Matter Matter Interaction or Photon Emission ΔΕ/ΔΜ = hν/m = c2 the energy ΔΕ of the charge-charge interaction of the electron-positron system turns to the energy 2hν of the two generated photons, while the mass defect which represents the two masses 2M of the two particles turns to the photon masses 2m = 2hν/c2. Such a situation is observed also in the charge-charge interaction of the well-established electromagnetic laws for the formation of nucleus, because the experiments of the magnetic moments in nucleons showed that protons and neutrons consist of considerable charge distributions which led to my discovery of nuclear force and structure, while the wrong nuclear theories of Yukawa (1935) and of Gell-Mann (1973) cannot lead to the nuclear structure. The frontiers of science are broad and varied. As the methods of observation are improved and expanded, an immense variety of facts and occurrences are faced and new phenomena are continually discovered. Science tries to understand the phenomena as the consequences of the basic laws of nature. In this way, insights are gained into the fundamental ordering principles that govern the great variety of observed events under the concepts of force, energy etc. In physics, the definition of force was formulated by Newton and it applies to gravitational and electromagnetic interactions of the well-established natural laws of Newton (1687) , Coulomb (1785), and Ampere(1820). Note that the Faraday induction belongs to the Ampere law, because Neumann in 1845 showed experimentally that the EMF is consistent with the magnetic force . According to these laws the force is the result of fundamental interactions at a distance confirmed by the experiments of the Quantum Entanglement. Note that natural laws should be valid at both macroscopic and microscopic levels without limitations. For example Newton proved that gravity is a universal force, while Aristotle believed that gravity does not govern the celestial bodies. Although Bohr in 1913 used successfully the Coulomb law for the proton-electron interaction in hydrogen, theoretical physicists of the 20th century believed that in the case electron-positron interaction at the microscopic level and also in the case of nuclei and quarks the fundamental laws of electromagnetism cannot be applied, . So, Heisenberg (1926 and 1932), Yukawa (1935), Gell-Mann (1973) and other physicists developed theories out of natural laws to describe the nuclear bonds, and the quark bindings with hypothetical exchange strong forces as well as weak forces of the beta decay. Under this apparent situation of three different kinds of the same force obeying the same laws, physicists with various unified field theories sought to unify these hypothetical forces into a fundamental law, but without success, because they did not know that all kinds of force including the bindings of nucleons and quarks are just electromagnetic in nature, like the real forces of the well-established laws of electromagnetism, which described successfully the one-electron atomic systems in the Bohr model and in the quantum mechanics. Experiments showed that nuclei consist of spinning protons and neutrons with charge distributions, which behave like small current loops establishing magnetic moments μ. Consequently from the experimental values of μ and the experiments of the deep inelastic scattering we were able to reveal in particle and modern physics the considerable charge distributions (–5e/3,8e/3) for proton and (8e/3,-8e/3) for neutron. Under this condition I published my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism” (2003), In that paper I showed my discovery of the nuclear force and structure. I also showed that the mass defect of the nuclear binding cannot turn into the energy hν of the generated photons. In fact, according to the Matter Matter Interaction or Photon emission ΔΕ/ΔΜ = hν/m = c2 which is the reverse reaction of the Photon-Matter Interaction is able to tells us that the electromagnetic nuclear binding energy ΔΕ of short range turns into the photon energy hν, while the mass defect ΔΜ = ΔΕ/c2 turns into the photon mass m = hν/c2. Such a situation based on natural laws tells us that the Einstein conversion of mass defect to the photon energy is a fallacious idea of the Einstein invalid mass-energy conservation, because it violates the two conservation laws of energy and mass. Today it is well-known that the enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger quantum mechanics (1926) in revealing the atomic structure is due to the application of the well-established laws of electromagnetism. However after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) theoretical physicists like Heisenberg (1932), Yukawa (1935) and Gell-Mann (1973) abandoned the natural laws of force in favor of various fallacious theories based on the invalid fields and on the Einstein invalid special relativity. Thus in the "Nuclear force-Wikipedia" one reads the following dogmatic ideas out of laws: “The nuclear force is now understood as a residual effect of the even more powerful strong force, or strong interaction, which is the attractive force that binds particles called quarks together, to form the nucleons themselves. This more powerful force is mediated by particles called gluons, which are a type of gauge boson. Gluons hold quarks together with a force like that of electric charge, but of far greater power". Under this PHYSICS CRISIS I presented at the international conference “Frontiers of fundamental physics” (1993) my paper "Impact of Maxwell’s equation of displacement current on electromagnetic laws and comparison of the Maxwellian waves with our model of dipolic particles ”. The conference was organized by the natural philosophers M. Barone and F. Selleri, who gave me an award including a disc of the atomic philosopher Democritus, because in that paper I showed that LAWS AND EXPERIMENTS INVALIDATE FIELDS AND RELATIVITY . Surprisingly at the same time in Larissa when I analyzed carefully the experiments of the magnetic moments in protons and neutrons I found that considerable charge distributions in protons and neutrons are able to reveal the nuclear force and nuclear structure by reviving the natural laws of electric and magnetic forces acting at a distance. Whereas the two contradicting theories of mesons and of the Quantum Chromodynamics proposed by Yukawa and Gell-Mann respectively provide fallacious force carriers (mesons) or color forces between false massless gluons which cannot lead to nuclear structure. Although my new discovery of considerable charge distributions in nucleons revealed the nuclear structure by using not the theories but the well-established laws of nature unfortunately these novel ideas met at first much skepticism and occasionally overt resistance. Unfortunately it seems to be not surprising, because in the history of physics one sees that new fundamental physics concepts many times found invariably difficulties in being accepted by the majority, no matter how well formulated and important they could be. While the ruling of the majorities is a fundamental feature of every democracy, it does not apply to science where the great steps forward have always been made by isolated individuals. This dogmatic hardening under the influence of Maxwell’s fields Einstein’s relativity and the fallacious theories of the wrong Standard Model risks today to make the scientific majorities impenetrable to a critical understanding of my developed FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS based on the well-established laws of nature. ACCORDING TO NATURAL LAWS THE FAMOUS EQUATION OF EINSTEIN IS REPLACED BY MY DISCOVERY OF THE PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION In my paper of 1993 I showed that when a photon of opposite charges interacts with an electron it gives off both the energy hν and mass m for the increase of the electron energy ΔΕ and the increase of the electron mass ΔΜ as hν/m = ΔΕ/ΔΜ = c2 On this basis under the applications of the well-established laws of Coulomb (1785) and Ampere (1820) I showed that a photon behaves like a moving dipole with +q and –q. For simplicity when the dipole axis r is perpendicular to the velocity u the dipole operates with electric attractions Fe and magnetic repulsions Fm occurring at the same time as Fe = Kq2/r2 and Fm = kq2u2/r2 Since Weber in 1856 showed that K/k = c2 one sees that Fe/Fm = c2/u2 . That is for u = c we get Fe = Fm . In other words such a dipole at the velocity c operates with equal electric and magnetic forces occurring at the same time in accordance with Newton’s third law. For simplicity when the photon charges interact with the charge (-e) of an electron we apply the laws of electromagnetism in terms of Ey and Bz as Ey(-e) dy = dW and Bz(-e)(dy/dt) = Fm or Bz(-e)dy = Fmdt = dp = dmc Since Ey/Bz = c we get dW = dmc2 or hν/m = ΔΕ/ΔΜ = c2 That is, when the photon charges interact with the charge of the electron the energy hν and the mass m of the photon turn into the energy ΔΕ and the mass ΔΜ of the electron respectively. However here one sees that the magnetic force Fm occurs after the electric force Fe = Ey(-e) because of the velocity dy/dt which should violate Newton’s third law. So the velocity dy/dt always must approach to zero under the contraction of the dy and the dilation of the dt. That is, this transformation of energy and mass of the quantum dynamics differs fundamentally from the Newtonian mechanics because the transformation of energy and mass occurs under my discovery of length contraction and a time dilation. Category:Fundamental physics concepts